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Agrostis

Agrostis

Género de plantas de la familia de las Poaceas que consta de más de 100 especies de hierbas, la mayoría perennes. Algunas de ellas se utilizan para praderas de césped. Las flores aparecen en panículos sueltos; cada una de las pequeñas espiguillas contiene una sola flor.
- Agrostis aberrans Steud.
- Agrostis abietorum Swallen
- Agrostis abyssinica Ehrenb. & Hempr. ex Trin.
- Agrostis actinoclada F. Muell.
- Agrostis aculeata (L.) Scop.
- Agrostis acutiflora P. Beauv.
- Agrostis acutiglumis Tutin & E.F. Warb.
- Agrostis adamsonii Vickery
- Agrostis adscendens Lange
- Agrostis aemula R. Br.
  - Agrostis aemula var. aemula
  - Agrostis aemula var. setifolia (Hook. f.) Vickery
    - Agrostis aemula subsp. spathacea Berggr.
- Agrostis aenea Trin.
- Agrostis aequata Nees
- Agrostis aequivalvis (Trin.) Trin.
  - Agrostis aequivalvis var. aequivalvis
  - Agrostis aequivalvis var. obliqua Griseb.
- Agrostis affinis Schult.
- Agrostis africana Poir.
- Agrostis agrostidiformis (Roshev.) Bor
- Agrostis agrostiflora (Beck) Rauschert
- Agrostis airiformis Steud.
- Agrostis airoides Torr.
  - Agrostis airoides var. airoides
  - Agrostis airoides var. flaccidifolia Speg.
- Agrostis alaskana Hultén
  - Agrostis alaskana var. breviflora Hultén
- Agrostis alba L.
  - Agrostis alba var. alba
  - Agrostis alba var. albida (Trin.) Griseb.
  - Agrostis alba var. alpina Asch. & Graebn.
  - Agrostis alba var. ampliata Pérez Lara
  - Agrostis alba var. angustata Hack.
  - Agrostis alba var. aristata Spenn.
  - Agrostis alba var. armata
  - Agrostis alba var. aurea Domin
  - Agrostis alba var. brachyantha Batt. & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. brevipalea Litv.
  - Agrostis alba var. cedretorum Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. clementei Pérez Lara
    - Agrostis alba subvar. coarctata (Ehrh. ex Hoffm.) Blytt
  - Agrostis alba var. coarctata Cosson & Durand
  - Agrostis alba var. compacta Breb.
  - Agrostis alba var. compressa (Willd.) Breb.
  - Agrostis alba var. condensata Hack. ex Druce
  - Agrostis alba var. conferta Pauquy
  - Agrostis alba var. convoluta Freyn
    - Agrostis alba subsp. decumbens (Gaudin) Arcang.
  - Agrostis alba var. decumbens Gaudin
  - Agrostis alba var. densiflora Guss.
  - Agrostis alba var. diffusa (Host) Asch. & Graebn.
  - Agrostis alba var. dilatata Meyer
  - Agrostis alba var. dispar (Michx.) Alph. Wood
  - Agrostis alba var. dorsimucronata Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. dubia (Leers) Richter
  - Agrostis alba var. dzharylgaczensis Lavrenko
    - Agrostis alba subsp. eu-alba Litard.
  - Agrostis alba var. fasciculata Zobel
    - Agrostis alba subsp. filifolia (Link) Henriq.
  - Agrostis alba var. flagellaris Neibr. ex Schrot.
  - Agrostis alba var. flavida (Schur) Degen
  - Agrostis alba var. fontanesii Cosson & Durand
  - Agrostis alba var. foucaudi Husn.
  - Agrostis alba var. frondosa Woods
  - Agrostis alba var. gaditana (Boiss. & Reut.) Henriq.
    - Agrostis alba subsp. gigantea (Roth) Jirasek
  - Agrostis alba var. gigantea Spenn.
  - Agrostis alba var. glaucescens Woods
  - Agrostis alba var. hirtella Roshevitz ex Fedtsch.
  - Agrostis alba var. jahandieziana Litard. & Maire
  - Agrostis alba var. karsensis Schischkin
  - Agrostis alba var. koreensis Nakai
  - Agrostis alba var. langei Hack. ex Henriq.
  - Agrostis alba var. limosa Asch. & Graebn.
  - Agrostis alba var. littoralis Grossh.
  - Agrostis alba var. longipaleata Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. maior Gaudin
      - Agrostis alba subvar. malcuitiana Litard.
    - Agrostis alba subsp. maritima(Lam.) Arcang.
  - Agrostis alba var. minor Vasey
  - Agrostis alba var. mixta Batt. & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. murensis Terracc.
  - Agrostis alba var. mutica Hackel ex Douin
  - Agrostis alba var. narbonensis Malinv.
  - Agrostis alba var. olivetorum (Gren. & Godr.) Fiori
  - Agrostis alba var. pallida Spenn.
  - Agrostis alba var. palustris (Huds.) Pers.
  - Agrostis alba var. parvula (Schult.) Richter
    - Agrostis alba subsp. patula (Gaudin) Arcang.
  - Agrostis alba var. patula (Gaudin) Gaudin
  - Agrostis alba var. pauciflora (Schrad.) Richter
  - Agrostis alba var. podperae Rohlena
  - Agrostis alba var. pontica Grecescu
    - Agrostis alba subsp. procumbens Brand
  - Agrostis alba var. prorepens G. Meyer ex Asch.
  - Agrostis alba var. pseudopungens (Lange) Asch. & Graebn.
    - Agrostis alba subvar. pumila (L.) Cosson & Germ.
  - Agrostis alba var. pumila Spenn.
  - Agrostis alba var. purpurascens Spenn.
  - Agrostis alba var. rivularis (Brot.) Mutel
  - Agrostis alba var. sabulosa Grossh.
  - Agrostis alba var. salina (Dumort.) Richter
    - Agrostis alba subsp. scabrida (Maire & Trab.) Maire ex Jah. & Maire
    - Agrostis alba subsp. scabriglumis (Boiss. & Reut.) Asch. & Graebn. ex Maire
  - Agrostis alba var. scabriglumis (Boiss. & Reut.) Boiss.
  - Agrostis alba var. schimperiana (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Engl.
  - Agrostis alba var. silvatica (Huds.) K. Richt.
  - Agrostis alba var. simensis (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Engl.
  - Agrostis alba var. stenantha Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. stolonifera (L.) Sm.
  - Agrostis alba var. straminea Woods
  - Agrostis alba var. stricta Alph. Wood
  - Agrostis alba var. sylvatica (Huds.) Sm.
  - Agrostis alba var. tenuis (Sibth.) Fiori
  - Agrostis alba var. trinervata Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis alba var. umbrosa (Pers.) Richter
  - Agrostis alba var. varia (Host) Halácsy
  - Agrostis alba var. verticillata (Vill.) Pers.
  - Agrostis alba var. vinealis (Schreb.) Richter
  - Agrostis alba var. vivipara Sweet
    - Agrostis alba subsp. vulgaris (With.) Douin
  - Agrostis alba var. vulgaris G. Mey.
- Agrostis albicans Buckley
- Agrostis albida Trin.
- Agrostis albimontana Mez
- Agrostis algida C.J. Phipps
- Agrostis alopecuroides Lam.
- Agrostis alpestris Laest. ex Nyman
- Agrostis alpicola Hochst.
- Agrostis alpina Leyss.
  - Agrostis alpina var. aurata (All.) Ducommun
  - Agrostis alpina var. filiformis (Gaudin) St.-Lag.
  - Agrostis alpina var. flavescens (Host) Parl.
  - Agrostis alpina var. glaucescens Steiger
    - Agrostis alpina subsp. minor (Boiss.) Malagarriga
  - Agrostis alpina var. pyrenaea (Timb.-Lagr.) Douin
  - Agrostis alpina var. schleicheri Asch. & Graebn.
  - Agrostis alpina var. violacea Ducommun
- Agrostis altissima (Walt.) Tuckerman
  - Agrostis altissima var. altissima
  - Agrostis altissima var. laxa Tuck.
  - Agrostis altissima var. terrestris Lojac.
- Agrostis ambatoenis Asteg.
- Agrostis ambigua Roem. & Schult.
- Agrostis ambrosii Sennen
- Agrostis ampla Hitchc.
- Agrostis anadyrensis Soczava
- Agrostis anatolica C. Koch
- Agrostis andina Phil.
- Agrostis anemagrostis Syme ex Sowerby
    - Agrostis anemagrostis subsp. interrupta (L.) Syme
    - Agrostis anemagrostis subsp. spica-venti (L.) Syme
- Agrostis anemagrostoides Trin.
- Agrostis angrenica (Butk.) Tzvelev
- Agrostis angustata Stapf
- Agrostis antarctica Hook. f.
- Agrostis antecedens Bickn.
- Agrostis antoniana Griseb.
- Agrostis aphanes Trin.
- Agrostis aquatica Pourret
- Agrostis arachnoides Poir.
- Agrostis araucana Phil.
- Agrostis arcta Swallen
- Agrostis arenaria Gouan
- Agrostis argentea Lam.
- Agrostis arisan-montana Ohwi
  - Agrostis arisan-montana var. arisan-montana
  - Agrostis arisan-montana var. meglandra Y.C. Yang
- Agrostis aristata Phil.
- Agrostis aristiglumis Swallen
- Agrostis aristulata Müll. Hal.
- Agrostis aristulifera Rendle
- Agrostis articulata Brot.
- Agrostis arundinacea L.
- Agrostis arvensis Phil.
- Agrostis aspera Weber
- Agrostis asperifolia Trin.
- Agrostis asperigluma Steud.
- Agrostis asperula Phil.
- Agrostis atlantica Maire & Trab.
  - Agrostis atlantica var. subalpina Maire
  - Agrostis atlantica var. submutica Litard. & Maire
- Agrostis atrata Rydb.
- Agrostis atropurpurea hort. ex Steud.
- Agrostis atroviolacea Sennen
- Agrostis atrovirens (Kunth) Roem. & Schult.
- Agrostis attenuata Vasey
- Agrostis aucklandica Hook. f.
- Agrostis australiensis Mez
- Agrostis australis L.
- Agrostis avenacea J.F. Gmel.
  - Agrostis avenacea var. avenacea
  - Agrostis avenacea var. perennis Vickery
- Agrostis avenoides Hook. f.
- Agrostis azorica (Hochst. ex Seub.) Tutin & E.F. Warb.
  - Agrostis azorica var. rigidifolia Tutin & E.F. Warb. Agrostis

Hierba

En botánica, una hierba es una planta que no presenta ni tallos ni raíces leñosos. Los tallos de las hierbas son verdes y mueren generalmente al acabar la buena estación. Muchas hierbas son anuales, naciendo de semilla al comienzo de la estación favorable y no dejando al acabar ésta sino nuevas semillas en el suelo. Existen también hierbas vivaces, que retoñan desde tallos subterráneos o situados a ras de suelo. Los órganos subterráneos implicados son rizomas (tallos horizontales) y bulbos. Muchas hierbas bienales forman una roseta de hojas pegada al suelo en su primer año, en el que no se reproducen, y un tallo alto y florido, el escapo floral, en su segundo año. Se llama megaforbias (hierbas gigantes) a plantas que respodiendo formalmente al concepto anterior, alcanzan un porte considerable, incluso de varios metros. Éste es el caso, por ejemplo, de las diversas especies de bananas (género Musa). ---- En el lenguaje común hierba es también cualquier planta que posee valor culinario o medicinal, con ignorancia de su carácter herbáceo o arbóreo, cuando la parte de la planta que se usa son las hojas o tallos tiernos. Por el contrario, las especias son las semillas , bayas , cortezas, raíces, u otras partes de la planta. ---- "Hierba" o "la hierba" es también un término del argot para el cannabis. ja:ハーブ

Hernándo Cortés

Hernán(do) Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who conquered Mexico for Spain. He was known as Hernando or Fernando Cortés during his lifetime and signed all his letters Fernán Cortés.

Early life

Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485, the only child of Martín Cortés and Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, he was second cousin to Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined him to conquer the Aztecs). Cortés took classes at Salamanca but bitterly disappointed his parents by returning home in 1501 at age 16, rather than studying law like his grandfather. He had a choice between seeking fame and glory in a war in Italy, or trying his luck in the Spanish colonies of the New World.

Arrival in the New World

Due to several setbacks, Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1506. He took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba and was granted a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his efforts. This was the encomienda that had worked so well in the conquest of the Canaries (eliminating the indigenous Guanches) but would prove devastating in the New World. The brutality of the Cuba campaign and the subsequent extinction of the Indian population from disease, overwork and despair would later influence Cortés's more careful treatment of the Mexicans as Captain-General of New Spain, making possible, ironically, the survival of so many "genotypically" full-blooded Indians, Indian tribes, and Indian languages in Mexico today. Expeditions to Yucatán by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba in 1517 and Juan de Grijalva in 1518 had returned to Cuba with small amounts of gold, and tales of a more distant land where gold was said to be abundant. Cortés eagerly sold or mortgaged all his lands to buy ships and supplies and arranged with the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, another distant relative and his father-in-law, to lead an expedition, officially to explore and trade with the rumored new lands to the west. He was forbidden to colonize, but calling upon what law he had studied and his famous powers of persuasion, he tricked Governor Velázquez into inserting a clause about emergency measures that might have to be taken without prior authorization, "In the true interests of the realm." At the last minute, the Governor, sensing that Cortés was too ambitious for his own good, changed his mind.

Beginning his campaign

In 1519, Cortés fled Cuba (some say in the middle of the night) with 11 ships, 500 men, and 15 horses. They stopped briefly in the Yucatán, where there was little gold, but the priceless gift of two translators. One of these was the woman whom Cortes called Dona Marina, sometimes called "La Malinche," later made legendary in book and film (even if she was not, as conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo wrote in his account "The True History of the Conquest of New Spain," an Aztec princess sold into Mayan slavery). The other was a shipwrecked Spaniard who had learned a Mayan dialect during seven years of slavery, though he proved less and less useful as it became apparent that Marina was trilingual: she spoke Maya, Nahuatl (the language of the Mexica/Aztecs), and a dialect of Nahautl spoken only to and in front of the Mexica/Aztec emperor. Cortés landed his party in a location he named Veracruz ("True Cross") on Holy Thursday March 4. By establishing a municipality, he could "reluctantly" proceed to claim land for king Charles V of Spain by popular mandate of the city magistrates he had appointed, all conveniently friends of his. The local Totonac from Cempoala greeted him with gifts of food, feathers, gold – and women. He learned that the land was ruled by the great lord in the city of Tenochtitlán. Soon ambassadors from the Mexica/Aztec Emperor Montezuma II arrived with additional gifts, apparently hoping to keep him at a distance by satisfying him with gold. It had the opposite effect, of course. In his letters to Charles V, Cortés claims to have learned at this point that he was suspected of being Quetzalcoatl or an emissary of Quetzalcoatl, a legendary god-king that controlled lightning who was predicted to one day return to reclaim his city in a One-Reed year on the Mexica calendar. (One-Reed was, in this particular 52-year "century," 1519, adding to the extraordinary luck of this conquistador.) However, there is much doubt as to the truth of this legend. While Quetzalcoatl was a mythic god whom the Mexica saw as a tie to the earlier Toltec peoples from whom they claimed descent, there is little evidence supporting a Pre-Hispanic myth alleging his "return." Current scholarship on this topic is complex, and no consensus has been reached. Some argue that this Cortés-Quetzalcoatl connection was a post-colonial retelling by the Mexica to account for the Conquest. Some argue that this was a natural evolution from the Mexica concept of cosmology, in which (it is asserted) time is cyclical; therefore, the Mexica must have believed that events in the past would be repeated in the future (such as Quetzalcoatl's return). (This concept of Mexica cosmology is convincingly argued against by historian Ross Hassig in his book Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico.) Finally, some assert that the myth was a fabrication of the Spanish, used both to assert the inevitability of the outcome of the Conquest and to forge a link between the ancient gods and Christ (to whom Quetzalcoatl was often implicitly compared). While some of the expedition wanted to get such gold as they could by trade or theft and then return to Cuba, Cortés had seen the results of this sort of plunder and had plans to build a working empire of his own. He ordered all his fleet scuttled (not burned as legend has it), except for one small ship with which to communicate with Spain, effectively stranding the expedition in Mexico and ending all thoughts of loyalty to the Governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards the fabled Tenochtitlán. Cortés arrived at Tlaxcala, a small independent state within the empire's sphere of influence. The Tlaxcaltecas attacked his troops, but Spanish crossbows, broadswords, battle axes, horses, war dogs and firearms quickly won the battle. Cortés said that if the men of Tlaxcala would accept Christianity, become his allies and vassals to his lord, he would forgive their disrespect and overthrow their nemesis, Emperor Montezuma. Cortés's "lord" was Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, to whom he made his case by letters, over the head of Velázquez, who, in turn, was trying to make a case over the head of Diego Colón, son of Christopher Columbus and thus Admiral of the Ocean Sea. Otherwise, Cortés threatened, he would kill everyone in their entire nation. The Tlaxcaltecas agreed; Cortés then continued his march with some 2,000 Tlaxcalteca warriors and perhaps as many more porters. He also purchased cotton armour, seeing how much more effective than chainmail it was against Indian arrows. After Cortés arrived in Cholula, the second largest city of the Empire, La Malinche relayed a rumor that the locals planned to murder the Spaniards in their sleep. Although he did not know if this was true or not, Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike to serve as a lesson: the Spaniards seized and killed the local nobles, set fire to the city and killed an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 of the inhabitants. Cortés then sent a message ahead to Montezuma that the lords of Cholula had treated him with disrespect and had to be punished, but if Montezuma treated him with respect and gifts of gold, the Aztecs need not fear his wrath. Terror was one of his many powerful tools, though much of his military genius can be ascribed to La Malinche, who had her own motives for revenge. Cholula When the Spaniards saw the island city of Tenochtitlán for the first time, from the ring of volcanoes around the Valley of Mexico, they asked each other if they were dreaming. Surely it was the most magnificent city in the world. How could God allow heathens such splendor? The expedition arrived in the Mexica-Aztec capital on November 8, 1519. Montezuma welcomed Cortés to Tenochtitlán on the Great Causeway into the "Venice of the West," probably the largest city on earth, and many people mark this moment – when two high civilizations met after 40,000 years of isolation – as the true discovery of the New World. The two halves of the planet had found one another. Again however, there are also doubts that Montezuma personally met Cortés on the Great Causeway due to proscriptions and prohibitions regarding the body of the emperor and the relation between that body and its subjects. For instance, when Montezuma dined, he ate behind a screen so as to shield him from his court and servants. There were various restrictions on seeing and touching his person. Given Mexica feelings towards the dirty, rude and unwashed Spaniard, it seems highly unlikely that Montezuma would have personally met them as they came into the city: to do so would have been to profane himself in front of his people.

Relations with the last Aztec emperors

Montezuma had the palace of his father Auítzotl prepared to house the Spanish and their Indian allies. Cortes asked for more gifts of gold as a vassal of Charles V. He also demanded that the two large idols be removed from the main temple pyramid in the city, the human blood scrubbed off, and shrines to the Virgin Mary and St. Christopher be set up in their place. All his demands were met. Cortés then seized Montezuma in his own palace and made him his prisoner as insurance against Aztec revolt, and demanded an enormous ransom of gold, which was duly delivered. After some weeks in Tenochtitlán, knowing their leader was in chains and having to feed not just a band of Spaniards but thousands of their Tlaxcalteca allies, the strain began to weigh on the city. At the worst possible moment, news from the coast reached Cortés that a much larger party of Spaniards had been sent by Velázquez to arrest Cortés for insubordination. He left Tenochtitlán in the care of his trusted lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado, marched to the coast, and defeated the Cuban expedition led by Pánfilo de Narváez. When Cortés told the defeated soldiers about the city of gold, Tenochtitlán, they agreed to join him. (Narváez lost an eye, but worse awaited this great loser of the conquest in Florida.) The arduous trek back over the Sierra Madre Oriental began. Years later, when asked what the new land was like, Cortés crumpled up a piece of parchment, then spread it out: "Like this," he said. When Cortés returned to the palace, however, he found that Alvarado and his men had massacred the Aztec nobility and the survivors had elected a new emperor, Cuitláhuac. Cuitláhuac ordered his soldiers to besiege the palace housing the Spaniards and Montezuma. Cortés ordered Montezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast in peace. Montezuma was jeered and stones were thrown at him injuring him badly, and Montezuma died a few days later. On the night of July 1, 1520, Cortés decided to try to break out by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying boards to fill in one of the causeways (which had been opened to prevent escape), but a woman saw them and alerted the city. The fighting was ferocious, and many of the Spaniards were hindered by having loaded themselves down with as much gold as they could carry. Cortés only survived because the Mexica-Aztecs wanted him alive to sacrifice to their god of war. Surely the offering of the heart of such a warrior would win back their god of war, Huitzilopochtli. The gap in the causeway, removed to prevent their escape, was so filled with bodies the fugitives just ran across. Over 400 Spaniards and some 2,000 Indian allies were killed, but Cortés, Alvarado and the most skilled of the men managed to fight their way out of Tenochtitlán and escape. The women survivors included La Malinche, ten conquistadors, Alvarado's lover and two of Montezuma's daughters in Cortés's harem. (A third died, apparently leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second "María" named in his will.) This major Aztec victory is still remembered as "La Noche Triste", the Night of Sorrow. Cortés ordered his master shipwright, Martín López, a Basque who was arguably his most critical survivor, to build 12 brigantines for a siege of the city. Indian porters brought all the supplies stripped from the original fleet over the mountains from the coast, while Cortés and his allies secured all the towns around the Tenochtitlán lake system. The Mexica-Aztecs had been dominating other Aztec city-states for over a century, demanding ever more sacrificial victims and other tribute. Still, this phase of the campaign was arduous and brutal. The Tlaxcaltecas subsisted on the flesh of their massacred enemies while the "Christians" looked the other way, living on dogs and corn. Spanish foot soldiers helped kill Indians for their allies to "dress out", but also rescued many of the women Cortés planned to brand on the face as slaves. They hid the pretty ones in the bushes, sleeping with them during the night, and setting them free in the morning (or marrying them, now that their husbands had been devoured). The siege of Tenochtitlán began at a time when smallpox struck with a vengeance. Cortés's Indian allies suffered as well, with an estimated 40% mortality, but the effect on morale in Tenochtitlán, as they began to starve as well, must have been horrendous. Still, they fought on long after a European city would have surrendered. It is pure conjecture which has led some to believe that Cortés genuinely wanted to spare the beautiful city, and with so many Mexica attacking from the roofs it seems plausible to some that the invading forces pulled houses down street by street out of expediency, thus finding it necessary to destroy the whole city. Yet in the end, with a majority of the city destroyed, the Spanish further decimated everything that remained. The last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc, surrendered to Cortés on August 13, 1521. Cortés famously put Cuauhtémoc's feet to the fire to find the gold lost on La Noche Triste, but notarized testimony at his many subsequent trials (for murdering his legal wife, etc.) has abundant testimony from friends and enemies alike that this crime ruined Cortés. He never forgave himself and seems to have gone somewhat mad. He took off on a senseless, death-defying expedition through Guatemala to Honduras to punish a fellow Spaniard who had betrayed him, and with his departure all shadow of personal authority left Mexico. He became paranoid as well, having Cuauhtémoc hanged over the strong objections of his men. (Perhaps he could no longer bear to see him limp from his disfigured feet, although this opinion is purely speculative.) Although many popular histories insist that Cortés was a uniquely brilliant military strategist, the "great man" myth of Cortés drastically overshadows the actual process of conquest. While Cortés can be credited with successfully identifying the complexities of local indigenous politics, especially the animosity felt by many native groups towards the Mexica-Aztec Empire, the use of native allies was hardly a new concept. This tactic was one which Cortés had experienced and adopted from earlier conquests in the Caribbean. Additionally, the use of terror and the capturing of native leaders reappear over and over in Spanish conquest history and were not unique inventions of Cortés. Even his attempt to justify his conquest of the Mexican mainland, a right held by the governor of Cuba, through the founding of Veracruz and an appeal directly to the Charles V had been used by other conquistadors interested in usurping the right of conquest. Ultimately, Cortés and the conquest of Mexico should not be viewed as a brilliant military feat but instead as the successful implementation of multiple conquest strategies derived from almost thirty years of conquest experience in the Caribbean.

Later life

When Cortés returned to New Spain from Honduras, barely alive, he was greeted with joy by a desperate, lawless population. He served a term as Governor-General of "New Spain of the Ocean Sea" (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it), bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country. But the Castilian bureaucrats began to arrive, undoing all his work, and he left his eldest and favorite son, La Malinche's child Martín Cortés, with a relatively large fortune, eventually returning to Europe to fight in Italy with the same son. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendents until 1811. Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent. Cortés died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547 from a case of pleurisy at age 62. Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man; he had not become the great Caesar of Charles V's Western Empire. His last battle in 1541 was a Spanish attack on Algiers. He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador – his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the nobility (including a castle for Montezuma's heirs in Spain that still stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries and family members. In Mexico today he is condemned as a modern-day damnatio memoriae.

See also

Hernán Cortés in popular culture

Further reading

Primary sources


- Hernan Cortés, Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN 0300090943
- Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 ISBN 030681319X
- The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico by Miguel Leon-Portilla ISBN 0807055018

Secondary sources


- Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0671511041
- Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0786702710
- History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H. Prescott ISBN 0375758038
- The Rain God cries over Mexico by László Passuth
- Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0195160770
- The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov (1996) ISBN: 0061320951

See also


- History of Mexico

External links


- [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cortes/ Hernando Cortes on the Web] – web directory with thumbnail galleries
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04397a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] (1911)
- [http://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_flat.html Conquistadors, with Michael Wood] – website for 2001 PBS documentary
- [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt Ibero-American Electronic Text Series] presented online by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center]. Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán Cortés, Hernán ms:Hernan Cortez ja:エルナン・コルテス simple:Hernán Cortés th:เฮอร์นัน กอร์เตซ

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